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Modern medicine and technology seem inseparable. The discovery of X-rays by German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) in 1895 made it possible to look at internal organs of the body. This made it easier to diagnose broken bones, cancer, and other diseases. Not long after, Willem Einthoven (1860-1927), a Dutch physiologist, invented the first electrocardiograph. This device records the electrical activity of the heart muscles, making it possible to monitor for heart problems. In the mid-century catheters—thin hollow tubes that can be used to drain fluids or put in medicine—were inserted into the heart and liver. Many of the advances have come in imaging, enabling physicians to see the organs without opening the body. Technologies include ultrasound imaging, computerized tomography (CT-scans), positron-emission tomography (PET scans), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs). Diagnostics, while still an art, has become a science too.

X-rays, of course, are a form of radiation, which is dangerous to the body. Radiologists learned to use the lowest doses possible in imaging. They also learned to use targeted X-rays and other forms of radiation to destroy unwanted cells. Thus radiation has become a standard treatment for cancer.

Perhaps no field has been affected so much by technology as surgery. The various scanning technologies have guided the surgeon into the depths of the body, allowing radical invasive surgeries. On the other hand, flexible endoscopes, based on fiber-optic technology, came along in the 1970s. These have permitted what is called keyhole surgery, in which the scope, fitted with a laser that can cut like a knife, is inserted through a tiny incision. Such surgery became common for hernias, gall bladders and kidneys, and knees.

In the mid-20th century, the heart-lung machine was developed. It provides an artificial means of maintaining blood circulation, thus keeping patients alive while the surgeon operates on the stopped heart. This technique, called cardiopulmonary bypass, has made major heart surgeries almost routine, including the replacement of heart valves and the cardiac by-pass.

Artificial organs are another major 20th century development. Although transplantation is the ideal, there are not enough organs for people who need them. Artificial organs can keep patients alive as they await surgery. The kidney dialysis machine is one of the earliest examples of this. The first artificial kidney was invented in 1913. Hemodialysis, which was pioneered by the Dutch-American scientist Willem Kolff (1911-…, now prolongs life for many people with kidney failure. Artificial hearts have also been developed. Unlike cumbersome dialysis machines, these are actually implanted in the body. For a time it was hoped that that they might be permanent implants, thus solving the problem the shortage of real hearts for transplantation. However, few recipients lived more than half a year. Other artificial hearts were developed to act as bridges, to keep patients alive until a real heart was available.

Great strides have been made in developing prosthetics to replace missing limbs. Not too long ago, artificial limbs were made from metal and wood; the oldest surviving example dates to about 300 BCE. Plastic came into use in the mid-20th century. But now, advanced materials, such as carbon fiber, high-tech plastics and metals, have enabled researchers to create devices that operate by electronic attachment to the muscles. The latest artificial limbs are controlled by microchips.

As in many other fields, computers have played a role in the advances of modern medicine. Computers are an important component of scanning technology. They run the machines in operating rooms and intensive care units. Medical records and drug prescriptions may now be kept and transmitted in electronic form. And the science behind modern medical practice is based on the research using computers. Mapping the human genome would have been impossible without computers to assemble and analyze the vast and complex array of data.

Despite all these advances, there are still many diseases that lack adequate treatments. While many illnesses can be prevented, there are others that still devastate families and communities. And there are many people who lack access to adequate medical care for the diseases that can be cured or prevented. What does the future hold?