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Mesopotamia, an area that corresponds essentially with modern Iraq, also had an elaborate medical system. There were three types of medical practitioners. Diviners identified the god responsible for the illness and what sin was being punished. They sometimes used the livers of sacrificed animals to make their diagnosis. This process of divination was called hepatoscopy. It was considered particularly effective because the liver was regarded as seat of life. The second type of healer was the exorcist, who used spells to placate the god or drive him away. The third was the physician, who used herbal remedies, applied bandages, and performed minor surgeries.

Knowledge of Mesopotamian medicine comes from ancient documents. Cuneiform tablets unearthed from the library of King Ashurbanipal at Nineveh include a text called the Treatise on Diagnosis and Prognosis. It dates to the 7th century BCE, but reflects much more ancient knowledge. The treatise attributes diseases and maladies to the different spirits or gods, interprets them as divine punishment, and prescribes mostly magical remedies. It also gives detailed descriptions of many diseases and suggests some practical treatments. Another Mesopotamian text, Hammurabi’s Code, describes the duties of physicians and the fees they may charge. It also holds them liable for mistakes they may make, including those involving "use of knife."

Like the Mesopotamians, their neighbors the ancient Hebrews attributed illness to divine causation. However, the Torah sets forth detailed rules of hygiene. These rules may not have been intended to improve health, but that was certainly what they accomplished.

Ancient Greece was another culture that left behind documents containing medical practices.